596bibliography entries
402unique source targets
49definition claims audited
32dollar claims audited
18gold-standard claims audited
40money-creation claims audited
451971 claims audited
40currency-failure claims audited
40dollar-collapse claims audited
30petrodollar claims audited

Fiat-currency definition source directory

Central-bank explanations, statutes, monetary-system research, and scholarship used for What Is Fiat Currency?

Core definitions, money creation, and settlement

Examples and exchange-rate arrangements

CBDCs, stablecoins, and cryptoassets

Inflation and monetary failure

Historical development

Terminology

Monetary-history source directory

Primary law, archives, museums, and official historical records

  • American Numismatic Association. “Economic Warfare,” virtual exhibit on counterfeiting during the American Revolution. Direct source.
  • American Presidency Project. “Address to the Nation Outlining a New Economic Policy: ‘The Challenge of Peace,’” 15 August 1971. Direct source.
  • American Presidency Project. “Executive Order 6102—Forbidding the Hoarding of Gold Coin, Gold Bullion, and Gold Certificates,” 5 April 1933. Direct source.
  • Bank of England. “History.” Direct source.
  • Bank of England. Quarterly Bulletin, 2013 Q2, historical material on restriction and convertibility. Direct PDF.
  • Bank of England. Quarterly Bulletin, 2014 Q1. Direct PDF.
  • Banque de France. “The Fiscal Roots of Hyperinflation in Historical Perspective.” Direct source.
  • Banque de France. Working Paper 627 on Britain’s suspension of cash payments, 1793–1821. Direct PDF.
  • British Museum. Lydian electrum stater, object 1866,1201.3669. Collection record.
  • British Museum. Ming dynasty banknote, object CIB.EA.260. Collection record.
  • Central Bank of The Bahamas. “The Sand Dollar Is on Schedule for Gradual National Release,” 2020. Direct source.
  • Cité de l’Économie. “The Assignat Press of the French Revolution.” Direct source.
  • European Central Bank. “The Euro.” Direct source.
  • European Central Bank. “The 2002 Cash Changeover.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “Banking Panics of 1931–33.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “Creation of the Bretton Woods System.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “Emergency Banking Act of 1933.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “Gold Convertibility Ends.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “Gold Reserve Act of 1934.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “Roosevelt’s Gold Program.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “The Federal Reserve’s Formative Years.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “The Federal Funds Rate.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “Interest on Reserves.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “The Treasury–Federal Reserve Accord and After.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve History. “Federal Reserve Response to the Financial Crisis.” Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve Board. “Legal Tender.” Statutory source.
  • Federal Reserve Board. “Is It Legal for a Business in the United States to Refuse Cash as a Form of Payment?” Direct source.
  • FRASER. Proceedings and Documents of the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, July 1–22, 1944, vol. I. Full text.
  • GovInfo. An Act Establishing a Mint, and Regulating the Coins of the United States, approved 2 April 1792, 1 Stat. 246. Direct PDF.
  • GovInfo. An Act to Authorize the Issue of United States Notes, and for the Redemption or Funding Thereof, and for Funding the Floating Debt of the United States, approved 25 February 1862, 12 Stat. 345. Direct PDF.
  • GovInfo. Additional Legal Tender Act, approved 11 July 1862, 12 Stat. 532. Direct PDF.
  • GovInfo. Historical record of the Specie Payment Resumption Act, approved 14 January 1875, 18 Stat. 296. Direct PDF.
  • GovInfo. Historical statutory index for coinage and silver-purchase legislation. Direct text.
  • GovInfo. Historical discussion of the Bland–Allison Act, approved 28 February 1878. Direct PDF.
  • GovInfo. Reference to the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 26 Stat. 289 (1890). Direct source.
  • GovInfo. Historical record of the Gold Standard Act, approved 14 March 1900, 31 Stat. 45. Direct PDF.
  • GovInfo. Presidential proclamation fixing the weight of the gold dollar, 31 January 1934, 48 Stat. 1730. Direct PDF.
  • Henan Museum. “Da Ming Baochao.” Collection record.
  • Hong Kong Monetary Authority. “Linked Exchange Rate System.” Direct source.
  • Hong Kong Monetary Authority. Historical note on the Linked Exchange Rate System and 17 October 1983. Direct source.
  • Library of Congress. Hepburn v. Griswold, 75 U.S. 603 (1870). Supreme Court report scan.
  • Massachusetts Historical Society. Massachusetts colonial currency collection guide. Direct source.
  • Massachusetts Historical Society. Continental currency collection guide. Direct source.
  • Museum of the American Revolution. Continental Currency, Three Dollars. Collection record.
  • People’s Bank of China. Central bank digital currency and e-CNY resources. Official portal.
  • Smithsonian Institution. Massachusetts twenty-shilling note, 1690. Collection record.
  • Sveriges Riksbank. “1661—First Banknotes in Europe.” Direct source.
  • Sveriges Riksbank. “1668—Sveriges Riksbank Is Founded.” Direct source.
  • U.S. Supreme Court. Juilliard v. Greenman, 110 U.S. 421 (1884). GovInfo report.

Scholarly monetary and economic history

  • Bernanke, Ben S., and Harold James. “The Gold Standard, Deflation, and Financial Crisis in the Great Depression: An International Comparison.” NBER Working Paper 3488. Direct PDF.
  • Bordo, Michael D. NBER Working Paper 6115 on the gold standard and related regimes. Direct PDF.
  • Cambridge University Press. “Money and Technology in Ancient Times,” in Money in Crisis. Stable chapter page.
  • Cambridge University Press. “Outline of an Approach to Money,” in The Origins of Money in the Iron Age Mediterranean World. Stable chapter page.
  • Cambridge University Press. “Roman Silver Coinage and Monetary History,” in The Metallurgy of Roman Silver Coinage. Stable chapter page.
  • Cambridge University Press. Chapter on war and hyperinflation. DOI 10.1017/9781108755276.003.
  • Eichengreen, Barry. Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939. NBER book record. Direct source.
  • Eichengreen, Barry, and Jeffrey Sachs. “Exchange Rates and Economic Recovery in the 1930s.” NBER Working Paper 1498. Direct source.
  • Guan, Hanhui, Nuno Palma, and Meng Wu. “The Rise and Fall of Paper Money in Yuan China, 1260–1368.” Economic History Review 77, no. 4 (2024). DOI 10.1111/ehr.13305; open full text.
  • Grubb, Farley. “The Massachusetts Paper Money of 1690.” Journal of Economic History. Stable article page.
  • Grubb, Farley. NBER Working Paper 17276 on Continental currency. Direct PDF.
  • London School of Economics, Economic History Department. Working Paper 126 on the Great Debasement. Direct PDF.
  • NBER. Working Paper 7186 on the 1922 Genoa monetary conference. Direct PDF.
  • NBER. Working Paper 8429 on the interwar gold-exchange standard. Direct PDF.
  • NBER. Working paper on Zimbabwean hyperinflation and monetary collapse. Direct PDF.
  • Quinn, Stephen, and William Roberds. “How Amsterdam Got Fiat Money.” Journal of Monetary Economics 66 (2014). DOI 10.1016/j.jmoneco.2014.03.004; publisher abstract.
  • von Glahn, Richard. “The Rise and Demise of Paper Money in Imperial China.” Hoover Institution, 2017. Direct source.

Modern money, payment systems, and central banking

  • Bank for International Settlements, Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems. The Role of Central Bank Money in Payment Systems. 2003. Direct PDF.
  • Bank for International Settlements. Annual Economic Report 2022, chapter 1. Direct source.
  • Bank of England. “Money in the Modern Economy: An Introduction.” Quarterly Bulletin 2014 Q1. Direct source.
  • Bank of England. “Money Creation in the Modern Economy.” Quarterly Bulletin 2014 Q1. Direct source.
  • Bank of England. “Twenty Years On,” material on operational independence. Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve Board. “Bottlenecks, Shortages, and Soaring Prices in the U.S. Economy.” FEDS Notes, 2022. Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve Board. “Fiscal Policy and Excess Inflation during Covid-19: A Cross-Country View.” FEDS Notes, 2022. Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve Board. “Drivers of Post-pandemic Inflation in Selected Advanced Economies and Implications for the Outlook.” FEDS Notes, 2023. Direct source.
  • International Monetary Fund. Chapter on the fiscal roots and history of interwar German inflation in the World Economic Outlook historical discussion. Direct PDF.
  • International Monetary Fund. Zimbabwe: Challenges and Policy Options after Hyperinflation. Direct source.
  • International Monetary Fund. Working paper on Venezuela’s exchange-rate and inflation dynamics. Direct PDF.
  • International Monetary Fund. Historical account of the Smithsonian Agreement. Direct source.
  • International Monetary Fund. Historical account of the floating-rate era beginning in March 1973. Direct source.
  • International Monetary Fund. Historical account of the Jamaica exchange-rate agreements. Direct source.
  • International Monetary Fund. “The Second Amendment of the Fund’s Articles of Agreement.” Direct PDF.
  • International Monetary Fund. Discussion of official dollarization regimes. Direct source.
  • Sveriges Riksbank. Economic Review 1, 2025, including a history of inflation targeting. Direct PDF.

Digital currency, stablecoins, and reserve assets

  • Bank for International Settlements. Advancing in Tandem—Results of the 2024 BIS Survey on Central Bank Digital Currencies and Crypto. BIS Papers No. 159, 2025. Direct source.
  • Bank of England. “Progress Update: Digital Pound Design Phase,” 2026. Direct source.
  • Bank of England. “Gold.” Official custody and reserve information.
  • European Central Bank. “Digital Euro.” Current project page. Direct source.
  • European Central Bank. Update on the Work of the Digital Euro Scheme’s Rulebook Development Group: Sixth Progress Report, July 2026. Direct PDF.
  • European Central Bank. Digital euro preparation-phase technical and research documents. Direct source.
  • European Central Bank. Analysis of official gold demand, 2025. Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve Board. Money and Payments: The U.S. Dollar in the Age of Digital Transformation. Direct source.
  • Federal Reserve Board. “Is FedNow Replacing Cash? Is It a Central Bank Digital Currency?” Direct source.
  • International Monetary Fund. Gold in Central Bank Reserves: Strategic Considerations, Market Risks, and Practical Guidance, 2026. Direct source.
  • U.S. Department of the Treasury. Treasury Borrowing Advisory Committee report discussing the GENIUS Act reserve framework, 2025. Direct source.
  • U.S. Department of the Treasury. Proposed rule on anti-money-laundering and sanctions-compliance requirements under the GENIUS Act, 8 April 2026. Direct source.
  • U.S. Department of the Treasury. “Year in Review 2025,” including the 18 July 2025 signing date. Direct source.

Publication and structured-data guidance

U.S. dollar backing source directory

Statutes, Federal Reserve and Treasury material, official histories, international data, and central-bank research used for What Backs the U.S. Dollar Today?

Federal Reserve: current monetary structure

Treasury and official gold

U.S. monetary history

International monetary use and markets

Bank money and money creation

U.S. gold-standard source directory

Primary laws, executive records, Federal Reserve histories, State Department material, IMF documents, and publication-review scholarship supporting the staged 1933–1978 account.

Primary and official U.S. sources

Federal Reserve historical research

IMF and international monetary sources

The web article should supplement the official sources above with edition-specific scholarly citations where the publisher has access to the works:

  • Barry Eichengreen, Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939.
  • Barry Eichengreen, Globalizing Capital: A History of the International Monetary System.
  • Michael D. Bordo and Barry Eichengreen, eds., A Retrospective on the Bretton Woods System.
  • Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960.
  • Ben S. Bernanke, essays and lectures on the Great Depression and gold-standard transmission.
  • Robert Triffin, Gold and the Dollar Crisis.

Money-creation source directory

Official central-bank explanations, Federal Reserve and Treasury material, banking standards, statutes, statistical releases, and cross-jurisdictional sources behind the balance-sheet analysis.

Source Type Main use Link
Michael McLeay, Amar Radia, and Ryland Thomas, “Money creation in the modern economy,” Bank of England, 2014 Official analytical Loans create deposits; misconceptions; bank constraints Open source
Bank of England, “Money in the modern economy: an introduction,” 2014 Official analytical Money as IOU; notes, reserves, deposits Open source
Deutsche Bundesbank, “How money is created,” 2017 Official Book-money creation, asset purchases, constraints Open source
Deutsche Bundesbank, Monthly Report, April 2017, “The role of banks, non-banks and the central bank in the money creation process” Official analytical Detailed balance sheets and constraints Open source
Deutsche Bundesbank, “The Origin of Money — Part II: Book Money” Official explainer Loans create deposits without prior saver transfer Open source
Deutsche Bundesbank, “The Origin of Money — Part III: Central Bank Money” Official explainer Reserve settlement between banks Open source
Norges Bank, “How is money created?” 3 September 2025 Official explainer Loan creation, repayment, constraints Open source
Norges Bank, Norway’s Financial System 2026 Official institutional report System-wide loans create deposits; asset purchases Open source
Federal Reserve, “What is the money supply? Is it important?” Official Monetary base, M1, M2 Open source
Federal Reserve, H.6 Money Stock Measures, 25 August 2026 Official statistical release Current M1/M2 definitions and data Open source
Federal Reserve, H.6 Technical Q&A Official methodology May 2020 reclassification and series breaks Open source
Federal Reserve, “Reserve Requirements” Official regulation/policy Zero ratios effective 26 March 2020 Open source
Federal Reserve, final H.3 Aggregate Reserves release, 17 September 2020 Archived official statistical release Historical reserve and monetary-base data; H.3 consolidation into H.6 Open source
Seth B. Carpenter and Selva Demiralp, “Money, Reserves, and the Transmission of Monetary Policy: Does the Money Multiplier Exist?” FEDS 2010-41 Scholarly staff research Critique of literal multiplier mechanism Open source
Federal Reserve, “Examining CBDC and Wholesale Payments,” 2023 Official analytical Central-bank money, reserve accounts, settlement Open source
Federal Reserve, “Payment Systems,” The Fed Explained Official Payment and settlement functions Open source
Federal Reserve, “Understanding Bank Deposit Growth during the COVID-19 Pandemic,” 2022 Official analytical QE purchase from bank versus nonbank Open source
Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, “Why Is the Fed’s Balance Sheet Still So Big?” 2019 Official analytical Asset purchases and cash orders affect reserves Open source
Federal Reserve, “Federal Reserve Notes,” updated 2026 Official Note issuance, collateral and currency process Open source
Federal Reserve, “Currency Print Orders” Official Annual note-order process Open source
U.S. Mint, “Bringing Coins into Circulation” Official Treasury/Mint and Reserve Bank coin distribution Open source
U.S. Mint, “Coin Production” Official Manufacturing process Open source
U.S. Treasury, “Cash and Debt Forecasting” Official Treasury operating cash and TGA Open source
Bureau of the Fiscal Service, “Daily Treasury Statement” Official data/reporting TGA cash, deposits, withdrawals, debt transactions Open source
Bureau of the Fiscal Service, “Treasury General Account” Official Government deposit-collection network Open source
U.S. Treasury, “Financing the Government” Official Debt-management purpose and issuance Open source
New York Fed, “A Closer Look at the Fed’s Balance Sheet Accounting,” 2017 Official analytical TGA and maturing Treasury settlement; Fed/Treasury separation Open source
New York Fed, “The Role of the Federal Reserve’s Balance Sheet in Monetary Policy Implementation,” 2024 Official analytical Reserves, TGA, currency, balance-sheet liabilities Open source
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, “Basel III” Official standard Capital and liquidity framework Open source
BIS Basel Framework, Liquidity Coverage Ratio Official standard Short-term liquidity requirement Open source
BIS Basel Framework, Net Stable Funding Ratio Official standard Longer-term stable funding Open source
ECB, “What is money?” Official explainer Cash, reserves, bank deposits Open source
ECB, “Money and inflation,” 2023 Official analytical Variable short-run relationship and policy use Open source
ECB, “Monetary aggregates” Official statistics Euro-area aggregate methodology Open source
BIS, “Central bank digital currencies — Executive Summary” Official analytical CBDC as direct central-bank liability Open source
Federal Reserve, “Money and Payments: The U.S. Dollar in the Age of Digital Transformation,” 2022 Official policy paper CBDC versus private digital money Open source
BIS, Tokenisation in the context of money and other assets, 2024 Official analytical Tokenized deposits, stablecoins, settlement Open source
BIS, Annual Economic Report 2026, Chapter III Official analytical Tokenized reserves, deposits, government bonds Open source
GovInfo, Public Law 119-27, GENIUS Act Primary law U.S. payment-stablecoin framework Open source
GovInfo, full text of Public Law 119-27 Primary law Statutory definitions and requirements Open source
Federal Reserve, “Banks in the Age of Stablecoins,” 2025 Official analytical Deposit migration and bank funding/lending Open source
Bank of England, “New forms of digital money,” 2021 Official policy paper Nonbank lending transfers deposits; private money issuers Open source
Bank of England, “Quantitative easing” Official explainer QE operations and transmission Open source
Federal Reserve, “A Brief Illustrated History of the Federal Reserve’s Balance Sheet,” 2026 Official analytical Historical balance-sheet context Open source
U.S. Treasury, “Treasury Seeks Public Comment on GENIUS Act Proposed Rulemaking,” 17 August 2026 Official current rulemaking announcement Current implementation status and expected effective date Open source

What happened in 1971 source directory

Official histories, statistical agencies, central-bank research, and methodological sources behind the 45-claim audit of post-1971 charts and causal claims.

ID Institution or author Title Type Direct URL Principal use
S001 U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian Nixon and the End of the Bretton Woods System, 1971–1973 Official history https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/nixon-shock 1971 policy package, Smithsonian Agreement, floating rates.
S002 Federal Reserve History Gold Convertibility Ends Institutional history https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/gold-convertibility-ends Gold-window suspension, reserve pressure, Triffin dilemma.
S003 Federal Reserve History The Smithsonian Agreement Institutional history https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/smithsonian-agreement Failed fixed-rate repair and March 1973 transition.
S004 Federal Reserve History The Great Inflation Institutional history https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great-inflation Inflation chronology, 1965–1982, policy and expectations.
S005 Federal Reserve History Oil Shock of 1973–74 Institutional history https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/oil-shock-of-1973-74 Embargo, production cuts, oil prices, recession.
S006 U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian Oil Embargo, 1973–1974 Official history https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/oil-embargo Geopolitical and diplomatic causes of the embargo.
S007 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics The compensation–productivity gap Official statistical explanation https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2011/ted_20110224.htm Uses 1973 as the main postwar dividing point.
S008 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Estimating the U.S. labor share Institutional research https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2017/article/estimating-the-us-labor-share.htm Labor-share and deflator decomposition.
S009 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Productivity program Official data portal https://www.bls.gov/productivity/ Definitions, historical series, revisions.
S010 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Below trend: the U.S. productivity slowdown Institutional research https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-6/below-trend-the-us-productivity-slowdown-since-the-great-recession.htm Periodization and later productivity slowdowns.
S011 Anna Stansbury and Lawrence H. Summers Productivity and Pay: Is the Link Broken? NBER working paper https://www.nber.org/papers/w24165 Average and median compensation versus productivity.
S012 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Labor share of output has declined since 1947 Official statistical explanation https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2017/labor-share-of-output-has-declined-since-1947.htm Long-run labor-share history.
S013 Congressional Budget Office Trends in the Distribution of Household Income From 1979 to 2021 Official analysis https://www.cbo.gov/publication/60342 Income distribution, taxes, transfers, capital gains.
S014 Congressional Budget Office Trends in Household Income Between 1979 and 2007 Official analysis https://www.cbo.gov/publication/42729 Distributional history and measurement.
S015 U.S. Census Bureau Income Inequality Data Tables Official data portal https://www.census.gov/topics/income-poverty/income-inequality/data/data-tables.html Historical inequality tables and definitions.
S016 Congressional Budget Office Federal Debt: A Primer Official fiscal analysis https://www.cbo.gov/publication/56309 Debt held by public reached 23% of GDP in 1974.
S017 U.S. Treasury Fiscal Data Historical Debt Outstanding Primary data https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/datasets/historical-debt-outstanding/ Nominal federal debt history.
S018 U.S. Treasury Fiscal Data Understanding the National Debt Official explainer https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/americas-finance-guide/national-debt/ Debt concepts and reporting.
S019 Federal Housing Finance Agency House Price Index Official data portal https://www.fhfa.gov/data/hpi Repeat-sales house-price indexes and methodology.
S020 Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Housing Affordability and Housing Demand Central-bank research https://www.frbsf.org/research-and-insights/publications/economic-letter/2026/02/housing-affordability-and-housing-demand/ Income, population, demand, metro evidence.
S021 Federal Reserve Board Housing Supply and Affordability Central-bank research https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/feds/housing-supply-and-affordability.htm Supply, regulation, geography, affordability.
S022 Federal Reserve Board Supply Constraints and Housing Market Dynamics Central-bank research https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/feds/supply-constraints-and-housing-market-dynamics.htm Supply elasticity and local prices.
S023 Federal Reserve Board House Prices and Monetary Policy: A Cross-Country Study Central-bank research https://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/ifdp/2005/841/ifdp841.htm Rates, liquidity, growth, house prices.
S024 National Center for Education Statistics Tuition, fees, room, and board, 1963–64 through 2022–23 Official table https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d23/tables/dt23_330.10.asp Long-run current and constant-dollar higher-education prices.
S025 Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services National Health Expenditure Data Official data portal https://www.cms.gov/data-research/statistics-trends-and-reports/national-health-expenditure-data Health spending by service, payer, sponsor.
S026 U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis Personal Saving Rate Official data portal https://www.bea.gov/data/income-saving/personal-saving-rate Saving-rate definition, data, revisions.
S027 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Forty years of falling manufacturing employment Official analysis https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-9/forty-years-of-falling-manufacturing-employment.htm Manufacturing jobs peaked in June 1979.
S028 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 100 years of employment, hours, and earnings Institutional history https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2016/article/current-employment-statistics-survey-100-years-of-employment-hours-and-earnings.htm Long-run employment series.
S029 Bureau of Justice Statistics Prisoners in 1980 Official justice statistics https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/prisoners-1980-0 Prison population through 1980.
S030 Bureau of Justice Statistics Prisoners in 1990 Official justice statistics https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/prisoners-1990-0 Large prison expansion during 1980s.
S031 Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Reports publications Official data archive https://www.fbi.gov/how-we-can-help-you/more-fbi-services-and-information/ucr/publications Crime data and reporting definitions.
S032 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Women in the labor force Official statistical overview https://www.bls.gov/cps/demographics/women-labor-force.htm Women’s participation rose for decades and peaked in 1999.
S033 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Labor force participation since the peak Institutional research https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2016/article/labor-force-participation-what-has-happened-since-the-peak.htm Participation chronology and demographic factors.
S034 U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis Consumer spending and saving data Official data portal https://www.bea.gov/data/consumer-spending/main NIPA definitions and data access.
S035 FRED / BLS Labor Productivity (OPHNFB) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/OPHNFB Quarterly BLS productivity index from 1947.
S036 FRED / BLS Real Hourly Compensation (COMPRNFB) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/COMPRNFB Quarterly BLS compensation index.
S037 FRED / BLS Labor Share Index (PRS85006173) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PRS85006173 BLS labor-share index.
S038 FRED / BLS Consumer Price Index (CPIAUCSL) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CPIAUCSL CPI-U.
S039 FRED / BEA Personal Saving Rate (PSAVERT) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/PSAVERT BEA saving rate.
S040 FRED / BLS Manufacturing Employment (MANEMP) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/MANEMP Manufacturing employment.
S041 FRED Federal Debt as Percent of GDP (GFDEGDQ188S) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/GFDEGDQ188S Debt/GDP series.
S042 FRED / LBMA London Gold Price (GOLDAMGBD228NLBM) Institutional data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/GOLDAMGBD228NLBM Gold price from 1968.
S043 FRED / BIS Real Residential Property Prices (QUSR628BIS) Institutional data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/QUSR628BIS BIS real house-price index.
S044 FRED / BLS Rent CPI (CUSR0000SEHA) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CUSR0000SEHA Rent of primary residence CPI.
S045 FRED / BLS Medical Care CPI (CPIMEDSL) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CPIMEDSL Medical care CPI.
S046 FRED / BLS Tuition, School Fees, and Childcare CPI (CUSR0000SEEB) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CUSR0000SEEB Education-related price index.
S047 FRED / BLS Median Usual Weekly Real Earnings (LES1252881600Q) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LES1252881600Q Median real earnings; begins in 1979.
S048 FRED / BLS Women’s Labor-Force Participation (LNS11300002) Official data mirror https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/LNS11300002 Women age 16+ participation rate.
S049 International Monetary Fund Silent Revolution, chapter 1 Official institutional history https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/history/2001/chapter1.pdf Jamaica and Second Amendment chronology.
S050 WTF Happened in 1971? Viral chart collection Claim corpus https://wtfhappenedin1971.com/ Identifies claims being audited; not foundational evidence.
S051 Google Search Central Creating helpful, reliable, people-first content Official guidance https://developers.google.com/search/docs/fundamentals/creating-helpful-content Originality and publication quality.
S052 Google Search Central Article structured data Official guidance https://developers.google.com/search/docs/appearance/structured-data/article Article schema.
S053 Google Search Central General structured-data guidelines Official guidance https://developers.google.com/search/docs/appearance/structured-data/sd-policies Accuracy and validation.
S054 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Productivity bulk data directory Primary data archive https://download.bls.gov/pub/time.series/pr/ Machine-readable productivity data.
S055 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics CPI bulk data directory Primary data archive https://download.bls.gov/pub/time.series/cu/ Machine-readable CPI data.
S056 Congressional Budget Office The Distribution of Household Income in 2021 Official analysis https://www.cbo.gov/publication/60341 Household income concepts and distribution.
S057 Federal Reserve History The Great Moderation Institutional history https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great-moderation Later macroeconomic periodization.
S058 Federal Reserve History Inflation topic portal Institutional history https://www.federalreservehistory.org/topics/inflation Inflation episodes and policy chronology.
S059 Bureau of Justice Statistics National Prisoner Statistics Official data portal https://bjs.ojp.gov/data-collection/national-prisoner-statistics-nps Longitudinal prison-population data.
S060 U.S. Census Bureau Income in the United States: 2024 Official report https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2025/demo/p60-286.html Current income concepts; live-check contemporary values.

Fiat-currency failure source directory

Hyperinflation research, IMF and central-bank case studies, currency standards, official transition records, and claim artifacts supporting the 146-record outcome corpus.

S001 — World Hyperinflations

S002 — World Inflation and Hyperinflation Table

S003 — On Hyperinflation: New Evidence from Zambia, the Central African Franc Zone, and Belarus

S004 — Zimbabwe Hyperinflates, Again: The 58th Episode of Hyperinflation in History

  • Author/institution: Steve H. Hanke and Erik Bostrom
  • Publication/year: Studies in Applied Economics / RePEc, 2017
  • Direct URL: https://ideas.repec.org/p/ris/jhisae/0090.html
  • Evidentiary use: Second Zimbabwe episode and methodology
  • Tier: Scholarly working paper

S005 — Hanke’s World Inflation Update

S006 — 152 Fiat Currencies That Failed Due to Hyperinflation

S007 — The Failure of Money

  • Author/institution: Jeff Clark / Casey Research republication
  • Publication/year: Business Insider, 2012
  • Direct URL: https://www.businessinsider.com/the-failure-of-money-2012-9
  • Evidentiary use: Visible source for the 775-currency/27-year claim; no row-level dataset published on page
  • Tier: Claim corpus

S008 — Every Fiat Currency Has Failed?

S009 — The Realities of Modern Hyperinflation

S010 — This Time Is Different: A Panoramic View of Eight Centuries of Financial Crises

  • Author/institution: Carmen M. Reinhart and Kenneth S. Rogoff
  • Publication/year: NBER Working Paper 13882, 2008
  • Direct URL: https://www.nber.org/papers/w13882
  • Evidentiary use: Integrated crisis database; currency crashes, banking crises, defaults, inflation
  • Tier: Major scholarly research

S011 — Currency Crises in Developed and Emerging Market Economies

S012 — Foreign Currency Deposits and the Demand for Money in Developing Countries

S013 — World Economic Outlook Database: Changes

  • Author/institution: International Monetary Fund
  • Publication/year: IMF, current through 2026
  • Direct URL: https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/changes
  • Evidentiary use: Official notes on redenominations and unit changes including Ghana, Mozambique, Romania, Belarus, Zambia, Venezuela and others
  • Tier: Official data documentation

S014 — Global Financial Data Standards — ISO 4217

S015 — Determination of the Euro Conversion Rates

S016 — Countries Using the Euro

S017 — The Euro: Introduction and Conversion

S018 — German Monetary Union: Historical Background

S019 — Separation of the Czechoslovak Currency Was a Success

S020 — Ecuador and the IMF

S021 — Ecuador: Selected Issues and Statistical Annex

S022 — Implementing Official Dollarization

S023 — Zimbabwe: Article IV Consultation, 2009

S024 — Zimbabwe: Challenges and Policy Options after Hyperinflation

S025 — WEO Database Changes — Venezuela Redenominations

S026 — Zaïre’s Hyperinflation, 1990–96

S027 — The Georgian Hyperinflation and Stabilization

S028 — Modern Hyper- and High Inflations

S029 — Empirical Evidence of the Sources of Hyperinflation and Stabilization: The Case of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

S030 — The Ends of Four Big Inflations

  • Author/institution: Thomas J. Sargent
  • Publication/year: NBER / Rational Expectations and Inflation, 1981/1986
  • Direct URL: https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c11452/c11452.pdf
  • Evidentiary use: Classic evidence on fiscal and institutional regime change ending interwar hyperinflations
  • Tier: Major scholarly research

S031 — The Dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire: Lessons for Currency Reform

S032 — The Late 1990s Financial Crisis in Ecuador

S033 — Amendment 114 — Euro Legacy Currencies

S034 — Amendment 138 — Ghana and Venezuela

S035 — Amendment 168 — Venezuelan Bolívar

S036 — Currency Crises in the Post-Bretton Woods Era: A Catalogue

S037 — Financial and Currency Crises

S038 — What Is Hyperinflation?

S039 — Inflation, Expectations, and Money Under Hyperinflation

S040 — The Yugoslav Hyperinflation of 1992–1994

  • Author/institution: Peter Petrović, Željko Bogetić, and Zorica Vujošević
  • Publication/year: Journal of Comparative Economics, 1999
  • Direct URL: https://doi.org/10.1006/jcec.1999.1592
  • Evidentiary use: Causes and dynamics of Yugoslav hyperinflation
  • Tier: Peer-reviewed research

S041 — Argentina: Convertibility and Crisis Materials

S042 — The Great Inflation

S043 — Annual Economic Report — currency and financial stability research

  • Author/institution: Bank for International Settlements
  • Publication/year: BIS, current archive
  • Direct URL: https://www.bis.org/publ/arpdf/ar2025e.htm
  • Evidentiary use: Banking, currency and financial-system interactions
  • Tier: Official international institution

S044 — Creating Helpful, Reliable, People-First Content

S045 — Article Structured Data

S046 — General Structured Data Guidelines

S047 — The Changeover to the Euro Currency

S048 — Timeline: History of the Bundesbank

S049 — Central Banking in the Czech Lands

S050 — The Euro

U.S. dollar collapse source directory

Official statistics, fiscal and financial-system reports, historical research, and two post-package live checks supporting Can the U.S. Dollar Collapse? Values retain their observation dates, and modeled scenarios are identified as models rather than forecasts.

Key Author or institution Title Year Type Direct URL Use
S001 Federal Reserve Board The International Role of the U.S. Dollar—2025 Edition 2025 Official research https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/the-international-role-of-the-u-s-dollar-2025-edition-20250718.html Reserve, payment, banking, debt, banknote, stablecoin, alternative-currency and swap-line evidence.
S002 Federal Reserve Board Fifth Conference on the International Roles of the U.S. Dollar 2026 Official research summary https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/fifth-conference-on-the-international-roles-of-the-u-s-dollar-stablecoins-digital-payments-and-the-ir-of-the-usd-20260716.html Current assessment of dollar centrality and stablecoins.
S003 International Monetary Fund COFER Data Brief: First Quarter 2026 2026 Official statistics https://data.imf.org/en/news/imf%20data%20brief%20july%201 Reserve shares and methodology note.
S004 Bank for International Settlements OTC Foreign Exchange Turnover in April 2025 2025 Official statistics https://www.bis.org/statistics/rpfx25_fx.htm FX turnover and currency shares.
S005 U.S. Department of the Treasury Foreign Portfolio Holdings of U.S. Securities at End-June 2025 2026 Official survey https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sb0482 Foreign holdings by asset type and official/private status.
S006 U.S. Department of the Treasury Major Foreign Holders of Treasury Securities 2026 Official monthly statistics https://ticdata.treasury.gov/resource-center/data-chart-center/tic/Documents/slt_table5.html Country-attributed Treasury holdings and custody caveat.
S007 U.S. Government Accountability Office The Nation’s Fiscal Health: Urgent and Sustained Action Needed 2026 Official fiscal analysis https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-26-108610 Debt, interest and current-policy projections.
S008 Federal Reserve Board Financial Stability Report, May 2026: Asset Valuations 2026 Official financial-stability report https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/2026-may-financial-stability-report-asset-valuations.htm Treasury market size, yields, volatility and term premium.
S009 U.S. Department of the Treasury Debt Limit Current Official policy page https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/financial-markets-financial-institutions-and-fiscal-service/debt-limit Official description of default consequences.
S010 Congressional Research Service The Debt Limit Since 2011 2023 Official legislative research https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43389 Debt-limit mechanics and historical episodes.
S011 Federal Reserve Board Monetary Policy Report, July 2026 2026 Official monetary-policy report https://www.federalreserve.gov/monetarypolicy/2026-07-mpr-part1.htm Long- and short-term inflation expectations.
S012 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Deposit Insurance FAQs Current Official consumer guidance https://www.fdic.gov/resources/deposit-insurance/faq Coverage limits and scope.
S013 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis 10-Year Breakeven Inflation Rate Current Official data portal https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/T10YIE Market inflation compensation.
S014 Federal Reserve Board Examining CBDC and Wholesale Payments 2023 Official research https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/examining-cbdc-and-wholesale-payments-20230908.html Central-bank money and final settlement.
S015 U.S. House Office of the Law Revision Counsel 31 U.S.C. §5103: Legal Tender Current Federal statute https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title31-section5103 Legal-tender scope.
S016 U.S. House Office of the Law Revision Counsel 12 U.S.C. §§411–412: Federal Reserve Notes Current Federal statute https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title12/chapter3/subchapter12&edition=prelim Federal Reserve note issuance and collateral.
S017 Bank of England Money Creation in the Modern Economy 2014 Central-bank research https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/quarterly-bulletin/2014/q1/money-creation-in-the-modern-economy Bank deposit creation and limits.
S018 Federal Reserve Board A Brief Illustrated History of the Federal Reserve’s Balance Sheet 2026 Official research https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/a-brief-illustrated-history-of-the-federal-reserves-balance-sheet-20260213.html Balance-sheet evolution and ample reserves.
S019 Federal Reserve Board The Great Inflation 2013 Official historical research https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/great-inflation Inflation mechanisms and policy history.
S020 Thomas J. Sargent The Ends of Four Big Inflations 1982 Scholarly economic history https://www.nber.org/books-and-chapters/inflation-causes-and-effects/ends-four-big-inflations Fiscal-monetary regime changes in hyperinflation stabilization.
S021 International Monetary Fund Currency Substitution in High Inflation Countries 1993 Institutional research https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/022/0030/001/article-A011-en.xml Currency substitution behavior.
S022 International Monetary Fund Empirical Evidence of the Sources of Hyperinflation 2003 Institutional research https://www.elibrary.imf.org/display/book/9781589062528/ch08.xml Fiscal, monetary, exchange-rate and intermediation channels.
S023 Federal Reserve History Oil Shock of 1973–74 2013 Official historical research https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/oil-shock-of-1973-74 Oil, inflation and supply shock context.
S024 U.S. Department of the Treasury Status Report of U.S. Government Gold Reserve Current Official statistics https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/datasets/status-report-government-gold-reserve/ Gold holdings without redemption implication.
S025 International Monetary Fund Dollar Dominance and the Rise of Nontraditional Reserve Currencies 2022 Institutional research https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2022/06/01/blog-dollar-dominance-and-the-rise-of-nontraditional-reserve-currencies Reserve diversification into smaller currencies.
S026 Barry Eichengreen and Marc Flandreau The Rise and Fall of the Dollar 2008 NBER working paper https://www.nber.org/papers/w14154 Sterling-dollar transition.
S027 European Central Bank The International Role of the Euro, June 2026 2026 Official research and statistics https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/other-publications/ire/html/ecb.ire202606.en.html Euro international-use measures and constraints.
S028 Federal Reserve Board Internationalization of the Chinese Renminbi: Progress and Outlook 2024 Official research https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/internationalization-of-the-chinese-renminbi-progress-and-outlook-20240830.html Renminbi use, capital controls and outlook.
S029 Congressional Budget Office The Long-Term Budget Outlook Current edition Official fiscal analysis https://www.cbo.gov/topics/budget/long-term-budget-outlook Alternative official fiscal projections and debt dynamics.
S030 Olivier Blanchard Public Debt and Low Interest Rates 2019 Academic address https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.109.4.1197 Debt sustainability depends on rates, growth and welfare tradeoffs.
S031 Treasury International Capital System TIC Frequently Asked Questions Current Official methodology https://home.treasury.gov/data/treasury-international-capital-tic-system-home-page/frequently-asked-questions-regarding/ticfaq2 Custody attribution and data limitations.
S032 BRICS Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors Joint Statement 2024 Official intergovernmental statement https://brics.br/pt-br/documentos/acervo-de-presidencias-anteriores/finance-ministers-central-bank-governors-declarations/2024-brics-fmcbg-joint-statement.pdf/@@download/file Local currencies, payments and platforms.
S033 BRICS Brazil Brazil Denies BRICS Plan for Common Currency 2025 Official government communication https://brics.br/pt-br/noticias/brics-brasil-na-midia/brazil-denies-brics-plan-for-common-currency-or-dollar-replacement-valor-international-brasil Clarification that no formal common-currency discussion was underway.
S034 BRICS Brazil BRICS Bank Welcomes New Members and Calls for Sustainable Reglobalization 2025 Official communication https://brics.br/en/news/collabs/collaborative-communication/brics-bank-welcomes-new-members-and-calls-for-a-sustainable-reglobalization NDB local-currency financing strategy.
S035 European Central Bank Global Safe Assets and Their Convenience Yields 2026 Official research box https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/other-publications/ire/focus/html/ecb.irebox202606_02~f8b0c60f89.en.html Safe-asset supply and euro constraints.
S036 European Central Bank Determination of the Euro Conversion Rates 1998 Official primary record https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/1998/html/pr981231_2.en.html Orderly legal currency conversion.
S037 FiatCurrency.org Fiat Currency Failures: Case Corpus and Methodology 2026 Original research package https://fiatcurrency.org/fiat-currency-failures/ Failure taxonomy and distinction from replacement.
S038 Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff This Time Is Different: A Panoramic View of Eight Centuries of Financial Crises 2008 NBER working paper https://www.nber.org/papers/w13882 Historical interaction of debt, banking, inflation and currency crises.
S039 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis The Gold Standard and Price Inflation 2014 Official economic history https://www.stlouisfed.org/on-the-economy/2014/august/the-gold-standard-and-price-inflation Gold-system constraints and suspensions.
S040 Federal Reserve History Banking Panics of the Gilded Age Historical Official historical resource https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/banking-panics-of-the-gilded-age Banking crises under metallic standards.
S041 Federal Reserve Bank of New York Treasury Market Practices Group Current Official market resource https://www.newyorkfed.org/tmpg Treasury market functioning and practices.
S042 Federal Reserve Board Payment Systems 2026 Official operations page https://www.federalreserve.gov/paymentsystems.htm FedNow, Fedwire and central-bank payment services.
S043 Federal Reserve Bank of New York Survey of Consumer Expectations Current Official survey https://www.newyorkfed.org/microeconomics/sce Household inflation expectations.
S044 Federal Reserve Bank of New York Central Bank Liquidity Swaps Current Official data https://www.newyorkfed.org/markets/international-market-operations/central-bank-swap-arrangements Dollar swap-line operations.
S045 Bank for International Settlements U.S. Dollar Funding: An International Perspective 2020 Institutional report https://www.bis.org/publ/cgfs65.htm Global dollar funding network and vulnerabilities.
S046 International Monetary Fund Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves Dataset Current Official dataset https://data.imf.org/en/datasets/IMF.STA%3ACOFER COFER definitions and downloadable data.
S047 U.S. Treasury Historical Debt Outstanding Current Official dataset https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/datasets/historical-debt-outstanding/ Long-run federal debt series.
S048 U.S. Treasury Debt to the Penny Current Official dataset https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/datasets/debt-to-the-penny/debt-to-the-penny Daily federal debt totals.
S049 Federal Reserve Board Financial Accounts of the United States Current Official statistics https://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/ Balance sheets and holders of financial assets.
S050 Google Search Central Creating Helpful, Reliable, People-First Content Current Official publishing guidance https://developers.google.com/search/docs/fundamentals/creating-helpful-content Publication and information-gain guidance.
LIVE01 Jiang, Krishnamurthy, Lustig, and Richmond Dollar Erosion: Understanding the Loss of Reserve Currency Status 2026 NBER working paper https://www.nber.org/papers/w35328 Calibrated model of reserve-status erosion; scenario output, not a forecast.
LIVE02 Bank of Russia Bank of Russia attends meeting of BRICS finance ministers and central bank governors 2026 Official current statement https://www.cbr.ru/eng/press/event/?id=32762 August 2026 check of the focus on national-currency settlement.

Petrodollar source directory

Primary agreements, diplomatic records, official institutional research, current market specifications, and scholarship supporting What Is the Petrodollar? The directory includes 39 research sources selected from the package ledger plus three independently located official records or reproductions; two publication-guidance records remain private.

ID Organization or author Source Date Type Link Main use
S001 U.S. Government Accountability Office The U.S.-Saudi Arabian Joint Commission on Economic Cooperation 1979-03-22 Primary/official Open source Commission purpose, structure, projects, and petrodollar-recycling description
S002 U.S. Government Accountability Office The U.S.-Saudi Arabian Joint Commission on Economic Cooperation — full report PDF 1979-03-22 Primary/official Open source Five-year technical-agreement term, trust account, and U.S. expectations
S003 U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian Oil Companies Compensate for Dollar Devaluation: The Geneva Agreement 1972-02 Primary/archival Open source Dollar-denominated posted oil prices and pre-1974 payment practice
S004 U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Saudi Arabia 1974-03-06 Primary/archival Open source Purpose and proposed scope of joint commissions
S005 U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian Memorandum of Conversation: United States-Saudi Arabian Cooperation 1974-06-06 Primary/archival Open source Working-level design of economic and strategic cooperation
S006 U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian Minutes of U.S.-Saudi discussions on economic cooperation and petrodollars 1977 Primary/archival Open source Later commission and petrodollar financial discussion
S007 International Legal Materials / Cambridge University Press United States-Saudi Arabia: Joint Statement on Cooperation 1974 Primary reproduction Open source Published text/provenance of June 1974 joint statement
S008 Saudi Press Agency Historical review of Saudi-U.S. Joint Commission 2017 Primary/official Open source Saudi official description of economic and technical cooperation
S009 U.S. Department of the Treasury Petrodollars and Global Imbalances 2006-02-23 Primary/official Open source U.S. policy discussion of oil surpluses and global capital flows
S010 International Monetary Fund Petrodollar Recycling and Global Imbalances 2006-03-23 Institutional Open source Absorption and capital-account recycling channels
S011 Federal Reserve Board The International Role of the U.S. Dollar — 2025 Edition 2025-07-18 Institutional/current Open source Reserve, invoicing, payments, banking, and debt-market shares
S012 Bank for International Settlements 2025 Triennial Central Bank Survey press release 2025-09-30 Institutional/current Open source Global FX turnover and dollar share
S013 Federal Reserve History Creation of the Bretton Woods System n.d. Institutional history Open source Dollar reserve role before the petrodollar arrangements
S014 Federal Reserve History Gold Convertibility Ends n.d. Institutional history Open source 1971 suspension and transition to floating
S015 Federal Reserve History Oil Shock of 1973–74 n.d. Institutional history Open source Embargo, supply decisions, and oil-price shock
S016 Saudi Central Bank SAMA Affirms Commitment to Exchange Rate Policy 2020-05-04 Primary/current Open source Official 3.75 SAR/USD peg
S017 International Monetary Fund Saudi Arabia: 2025 Article IV Consultation — Staff Report 2025 Institutional/current Open source Dollar denomination of oil-related exports and exchange-rate analysis
S018 International Monetary Fund IMF Executive Board Concludes 2026 Article IV Consultation with Saudi Arabia 2026-07-29 Institutional/current Open source Current assessment of Saudi dollar peg
S019 Saudi Central Bank Saudi Central Bank and PBOC Establish Bilateral Currency Swap Arrangement 2023-11-20 Primary/current Open source Renminbi-riyal liquidity arrangement and initial term
S020 Bank for International Settlements Project mBridge Reached Minimum Viable Product Stage 2024-11-11 Institutional/current Open source Cross-border multi-CBDC platform and Saudi participation
S021 Intercontinental Exchange Brent Crude Futures Contract Specifications current Primary/current Open source Dollar quotation, contract size, and settlement structure
S022 Shanghai International Energy Exchange Crude Oil Futures Contract Text current Primary/current Open source Renminbi quotation and international physically delivered contract
S023 Emine Boz et al., International Monetary Fund Patterns of Invoicing Currency in Global Trade in a Fragmenting World Economy 2025 Scholarly/institutional Open source Updated invoicing dataset and oil-export de-dollarization finding
S024 Gita Gopinath and Jeremy C. Stein, NBER Banking, Trade, and the Making of a Dominant Currency 2018 Scholarly Open source Complementarity of invoicing and safe assets
S025 Gita Gopinath et al., NBER Dominant Currency Paradigm 2016 Scholarly Open source Trade pricing and dominant-currency mechanisms
S026 David E. Spiro The Hidden Hand of American Hegemony: Petrodollar Recycling and International Markets 1999 Scholarly Open source Archival interpretation of confidential recycling arrangements
S027 Agence France-Presse Saudi Arabia Did Not Scrap “50-Year Petrodollar Deal” with United States 2024-08-06 Secondary fact-check Open source Genealogy and rebuttal of 2024 expiration rumor
S028 Financial Times There’s No Such Thing as the Petrodollar 2026 Secondary analysis Open source Counterargument emphasizing offshore dollar infrastructure
S029 U.S. Treasury / FRASER Treasury Bulletin, December 1974 1974-12 Primary/official Open source Contemporary Treasury operations and historical context
S030 Committee on the Global Financial System, BIS U.S. Dollar Funding: An International Perspective 2020 Institutional Open source International dollar banking and funding network
S031 Barry Eichengreen and Marc Flandreau, NBER The Rise and Fall of the Dollar, or When Did the Dollar Replace Sterling? 2008 Scholarly Open source Historical reserve-currency transition
S032 International Monetary Fund COFER — Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves current Institutional/current Open source Reserve-currency shares
S033 U.S. Treasury Treasury International Capital System current Primary/current Open source Foreign holdings and capital-flow data
S034 OPEC OPEC Statute and historical materials current Primary/current Open source Producer-organization history and institutional context
S035 U.S. Energy Information Administration Oil and petroleum market data current Institutional Open source Oil market background and current data
S036 International Energy Agency Oil Market Report current Institutional Open source Current global oil market conditions
S037 CME Group WTI Crude Oil Futures Contract Specifications current Primary/current Open source Dollar-denominated WTI benchmark specifications
S038 SWIFT RMB Tracker and currency usage data current Institutional Open source Payment-currency usage context
S039 International Monetary Fund Global Cross-Border Payments: A $1 Quadrillion Evolving Market? 2025 Institutional Open source Cross-border payment scale and currency concentration
LIVE01 U.S. Government Accountability Office B-205154.2, 62 Comp. Gen. 411 1983-05-31 Primary/official Open source Independent confirmation that the February 1975 technical-cooperation agreement had a five-year term and was later extended for another five years.
LIVE02 United States Department of State / Library of Congress Joint Statement on Cooperation, TIAS 7974 1974-06-08 Primary/official reproduction Open treaty volume Official text of the June 1974 commission framework; no fifty-year term or exclusive oil-invoicing clause appears in the instrument.
LIVE03 United Nations Treaty Collection Technical Cooperation Agreement, No. 14632 1975-02-13 Primary/official reproduction Open treaty volume Official text of the reimbursable technical-services agreement, dollar account, five-year term, revision or extension, and 180-day termination provision.